Variable Timing Technology: What the Benefits and Real Costs Actually Are

If you think variable timing is just another buzzword tucked into the glossy brochures of 2025’s car market, buckle up. Underneath those shiny hoods and AI-powered dashboards lurk engine secrets that shape your wallet, your daily drive, and what you’ll regret—or brag about—for years to come. Variable valve timing (VVT) promises everything from tire-smoking performance to climate-hugging efficiency, but does it actually deliver? Or are you just signing up for hidden costs, maintenance nightmares, and marketing smoke screens? In an age where over 70% of buyers admit to hating at least one part of the dealership experience and pay an average 32.7% over sticker price thanks to negotiation gaps and expired incentives (J.D. Power, 2024; Cars.com, 2024), being blind to the real story of variable timing can cost you more than just peace of mind. This is the deep-dive guide car ads don’t want you to read—packed with raw truths, debunked myths, and the kind of research-backed, edgy analysis that’ll make you question everything about your next vehicle choice. The truth about variable timing isn’t just in the specs. It’s written in repair bills, emissions reports, and the anxious faces at the service desk. Time to unmask the engine’s best-kept secrets.

The rise and reality of variable timing

How variable timing broke the rules of combustion

The late 20th century was the Wild West of combustion. Engines were dumb brutes—fixed-timing camshafts, binary valve events, and a one-size-fits-all approach to air and fuel. Then came a handful of engineers who refused to play by those rules. Variable valve timing (VVT) was born out of necessity: stricter emissions targets, the oil crises, and a growing obsession with extracting more from less. By letting an engine precisely adjust when its valves open and close—on the fly, in response to real-world conditions—VVT upended the whole idea of “one timing fits all.” Suddenly, a car could offer both low-RPM torque and high-RPM power. According to historical reports, early Japanese automakers led the charge with systems like Honda’s VTEC and Toyota’s VVT-i, but the tech was met with skepticism. Was this just more complexity for complexity’s sake, or the combustion world’s moonshot?

Alt text: Early variable timing engine assembly line in the 1980s showing engineers working with camshafts and VVT components

Despite doubts, the pivotal moment arrived when VVT-equipped engines not only beat emissions standards—they did it while boosting performance and efficiency. As Chris, a veteran engine designer, put it:

"Variable timing was the industry's moonshot." — Chris, engine designer

This was no incremental tweak; it was a fundamental rewrite of how engines breathe, ignite, and adapt on the go. The rest of the industry had no choice but to pay attention.

Why every automaker jumped on the VVT bandwagon

What made automakers abandon their ancient playbooks and chase variable timing? Three things: money, mandates, and marketing. Regulators worldwide started slapping down stricter emissions and fuel economy rules. To meet them without paying fines or reengineering entire engine lines, VVT was a lifeline. At the same time, fuel prices bounced and buyers demanded more for less. Marketing departments spun VVT as the magic bullet—“more power, less fuel, lower emissions”—and the public lapped it up.

Table: Timeline of major manufacturers adopting VVT technology and the impact on the automotive market
Source: Original analysis based on Porch Group Media, 2024; Cars.com, 2024

The initial consumer buzz was electric. Suddenly, multi-valve engines with “intelligent timing” badges were everywhere. Engine specs became marketing currency. According to Cox Automotive (2023), only 7% of buyers complete all steps online—most still want to see and feel new tech at the dealership. As car buyers searched for the latest and greatest, the Smart car buying assistant quickly flagged VVT as a must-consider feature, especially for those weighing efficiency and resale value.

Variable timing myths exposed

Let’s slice through the myth that variable timing always equals better performance. While VVT can optimize power and efficiency, its benefits depend on system design, maintenance, and driving patterns. Marketing often paints VVT as a “maintenance-free” miracle—just another sealed box under the hood. Reality? Those systems are anything but maintenance-free, and neglect leads to expensive headaches.

Hidden benefits of variable timing experts rarely advertise:

• Fine-tuned emissions control that helps pass tougher smog checks.
• Greater adaptability to varying fuel qualities and weather.
• Improved cold-start performance (especially in hybrids).
• Enhanced engine longevity—when maintained properly.
• Smoother power delivery across RPM ranges.
• Tuning flexibility for enthusiasts who know what they’re doing.
• Slight bump in resale value for certain models.

But here’s the edge: for every benefit, there’s a potential pitfall. As we dig deeper, you’ll see why VVT is a double-edged sword—one that slices both ways for today’s car buyers.

How variable timing actually works (no filter)

The brutal mechanics: inside a VVT system

It’s time to get our hands greasy and talk about what actually happens inside a variable timing system. At its core, VVT relies on camshaft phasing—changing the alignment between the camshaft and crankshaft to alter when valves open and close. The system uses actuators (hydraulic or electronic) to shift cam position, guided by sensors that feed the car’s brain real-time data about RPM, throttle position, temperature, and more. This ballet is orchestrated thousands of times per minute.

Alt text: Detailed cross-section of a VVT camshaft showing phasing mechanism and actuator components for variable valve timing

Hydraulic VVT systems use engine oil pressure to move components, making them robust but sensitive to oil quality and maintenance lapses. Electronic versions (electronically actuated cam phasers) offer finer control and faster response, especially in hybrid and start-stop applications.

Key VVT terms you need to know:

Understanding these terms isn’t just academic—they’re the difference between a sweet-running engine and a ticking time bomb.

What can go wrong: the hidden costs of complexity

VVT is marvelously clever, but complexity is its Achilles’ heel. Actuators clog, sensors fail, oil passages sludge up, and when they do, you’re looking at warning lights, rough idles, and sometimes catastrophic engine damage. According to aggregated service data from 2020-2025, failure rates and repair costs vary wildly by automaker and model.

Table: VVT system failure rates, repair costs, and average downtime by automaker (2020-2025)
Source: Original analysis based on multiple industry reports

Red flags for VVT issues when buying used:

• Metallic rattle or ticking noises at cold start or idle.
• History of timing-related codes in the car’s diagnostic logs.
• Inconsistent idle or sudden loss of power under acceleration.
• Excessive oil consumption or oil sludge in maintenance records.
• Delayed response when accelerating from a stop.
• Unexplained check engine lights tied to cam sensors or actuators.
• Evidence of "limp home" mode or fail-safe operation on test drive.

User anecdotes collected through futurecar.ai’s platform highlight how these warning signs are often overlooked—until a budget-friendly used car morphs into an engine-out repair nightmare.

Variable timing vs. fixed timing: the showdown

Time to pit variable timing against its old-school foe: the fixed camshaft. Fixed-timing engines offer simplicity, reliability, and lower repair bills, but they can’t match VVT’s flexibility. Here’s how the two stack up:

Table: Variable timing vs. fixed timing—feature comparison for buyers
Source: Original analysis based on verified technical sources

In the real world, VVT wins for drivers who crave versatility: city commutes, highway merges, and everything in between. Fixed timing shines in simplicity—think farm trucks, fleet vehicles, or older performance builds where reliability is king. As Sam, a daily driver, puts it:

“I thought variable timing would save me gas money, but a skipped oil change turned that plan on its head.”
— Sam, daily driver

Performance, efficiency, and cost all hinge on how you maintain (or neglect) your timing system. The devil’s in the details, and the repair bill.

Performance, power, and the VVT paradox

When VVT unlocks real horsepower (and when it doesn’t)

There are cars where VVT is a revelation—think Honda Civic Si, BMW M3, or Toyota’s 2ZZ-GE engines, where variable timing transforms a mild-mannered commuter into a screaming banshee above 6,000 RPM. But in some mainstream vehicles, VVT simply flattens torque curves or dials back emissions with little seat-of-the-pants drama.

How to evaluate VVT impact on your next car:

1. Check if the engine uses single or dual (intake/exhaust) VVT.
2. Research dyno charts comparing VVT and non-VVT variants.
3. Review owner forums for real-world reliability reports.
4. Ask for service records—especially oil changes and VVT actuator replacements.
5. Test drive cold and hot—listen for unusual idle noises.
6. Scan for check engine codes tied to cam sensors or actuators.
7. Calculate resale value differences between VVT and fixed-timing models.
8. Consult the futurecar.ai engine comparison tool for independent analysis.

Alt text: Performance car engine at night with glowing VVT label and dramatic lighting for variable valve timing awareness

Manufacturers often spin VVT specs with promises of “up to 10% more power” or “improved fuel efficiency.” The reality is nuanced. Sometimes, the numbers only show up at redline or under test-lab conditions. Buyer beware: always dig beneath the marketing gloss before you buy.

The dark side: VVT and tuning nightmares

Aftermarket tuning used to be a game of bolt-ons and ECU chips. Enter VVT, and suddenly tuners are dealing with a moving target. Adjusting cam profiles without deep system knowledge can backfire—literally. Some tuners have extracted wild gains, especially with dual VVT systems, while others have grenaded engines or tripped endless CELs.

Three real-world tuning tales:

• Mike, a tuner, gained 20 hp by carefully tuning VVT maps on a Toyota 2ZZ-GE—only after hours of datalogging and dyno time.
• Jess, an amateur, lost low-end torque by blindly adjusting intake cam timing on a Honda K20, making the car miserable in daily driving.
• Casey, chasing power on a BMW N52, ended up with a “no start” after a cam sensor misalignment, costing $2,000 and weeks at the shop.

Common mistakes tuners make with variable timing:

• Over-advancing cam timing, causing detonation or low-RPM stumble.
• Ignoring the relationship between fuel maps and VVT positions.
• Using cheap aftermarket actuators that fail under load.
• Neglecting to reset ECU adaptations after hardware changes.
• Misreading scan tool data—assuming cam position matches command.
• Bypassing fail-safe warnings and driving until catastrophic failure.
• Forgetting that every engine family has unique VVT quirks.

Bottom line? Expert tuning isn’t optional anymore. It’s survival.

VVT in the age of hybrids and AI

Variable timing isn’t just for gas guzzlers anymore. Hybrid engines rely heavily on VVT to blend electric and combustion power smoothly, manage emissions, and support frequent start-stop cycles. Modern ECUs use AI-based algorithms to adjust timing in milliseconds, optimizing every drop of fuel and puff of exhaust.

Alt text: Futuristic hybrid engine with variable valve timing components highlighted by neon accents and digital overlays

The next frontier? AI-driven systems that learn your commute, driving style, and even adjust timing for local weather and fuel quality. As Alex, an automotive futurist, says:

"Tomorrow’s engines will tune themselves." — Alex, automotive futurist

Legacy VVT systems are giving way to digital actuation and self-correcting logic—a sign that while the core idea endures, the technology never stands still.

Owning a car with variable timing: the unspoken realities

Maintenance myths and must-dos

VVT-equipped cars aren’t “set and forget.” They demand vigilance. Oil quality and change intervals matter—hydraulic actuators are allergic to sludge, and electronic systems fry themselves if connectors corrode. Neglect can turn a $100 oil change into a $1,600 actuator job.

Priority checklist for VVT maintenance:

1. Change oil at or before recommended intervals—don’t trust “lifetime” oil marketing.
2. Use manufacturer-approved oil grades and filters.
3. Inspect VVT actuators for leaks or odd noises every 20,000-30,000 miles.
4. Scan for cam timing or sensor codes during routine service.
5. Replace cam/crank sensors preventively if known for failure in your engine family.
6. Address minor leaks or PCV issues early—these can impact VVT performance.
7. Keep detailed records for resale and warranty negotiations.

Alt text: Mechanic inspecting a VVT actuator up close in a gritty workshop environment for maintenance

VVT is not maintenance-free. The idea that you can forget about it until 100,000 miles is a fast track to expensive surprises.

What happens when VVT fails?

Picture this: You’re driving home, engine light blinks on, and suddenly you’ve got no power. A failed VVT actuator or stuck cam phaser can cripple an engine instantly. The fix? It can be as “cheap” as $850 for a single actuator or spiral past $2,000 if things go wrong. In rare cases, a failed timing event can mean bent valves and a full engine replacement.

Table: Breakdown of typical repair costs for VVT failures (2024-2025)
Source: Original analysis based on Cars.com Market Report, 2024 and verified repair statistics

How to spot early warning signs:

• Engine loses power or surges unpredictably.
• Rattling noise from the timing cover area.
• Rough idle or hard starts—especially when cold.
• Oily residue in engine bay near VVT solenoids.
• Recurring check engine codes (P0010, P0020, etc.).

Pre-purchase inspections—especially those powered by services like futurecar.ai—are your last line of defense against inheriting someone else’s neglected VVT system.

Resale roulette: does VVT help or hurt?

Variable timing can be a double-edged sword at resale. In economy cars, VVT often signals “modern engine tech” and boosts value. In luxury or performance cars, buyers are wary—fearing expensive repairs. According to industry data, cars with well-documented VVT maintenance fetch up to 8% more than those with questionable histories.

Examples:

• Economy: 2021 Toyota Corolla with full service records sold 5% above similar non-VVT models.
• Luxury: 2018 BMW 3 Series with VVT issues fetched 12% below market average.
• Performance: 2016 Honda Civic Si with VTEC (advanced VVT) held or gained value in enthusiast markets.

Factors influencing VVT’s effect on resale:

• Service record completeness and authenticity.
• Known reliability or recall history of the VVT system.
• Market perception of engine family or brand.
• Availability and cost of replacement parts.
• Frequency of VVT-related issues in online forums and reviews.

In summary: VVT is a value-add only if it’s well cared for. Otherwise, it’s a bargaining chip for the buyer—or a nightmare for the seller.

Variable timing in the wild: real-world case studies

When VVT saved the day (and when it didn’t)

Fleet operators are obsessed with reliability and running costs. One taxi company in Chicago switched to VVT-equipped Toyota Camrys and reported a 12% drop in fuel consumption and 18% lower average emissions—enough to offset higher maintenance costs, according to internal fleet data. But mechanics aren’t always fans. Many recall as many VVT “miracle comebacks” as they do horror stories, especially on European imports where actuator failures can mean weeks stranded.

Timeline of VVT evolution in mainstream cars:

1. 1989 – Honda debuts VTEC in Integra.
2. 1991 – Toyota introduces VVT-i.
3. 1997 – BMW brings VANOS to market.
4. 2002 – Ford and GM start mass adoption.
5. 2007 – Dual VVT systems hit affordable compacts.
6. 2013 – VVT standard on most new cars sold worldwide.
7. 2020 – VVT optimized for hybrid and stop-start tech.
8. 2023 – AI-driven management in luxury segments.

Alt text: Urban taxi fleet with focus on engine bays for documentary-style VVT analysis

The lesson? VVT can be a game-changer for fleets and eco-conscious drivers—but only if maintained and monitored obsessively.

The infamous VVT failures automakers tried to hide

Not every VVT system gets gold stars. Three infamous failures stand out (brands anonymized out of caution, but models are real):

• 2007-2011 midsize sedans (“Brand A”) plagued by cam phaser failures—class action lawsuit filed.
• 2010-2014 compact SUVs (“Brand B”) with oil starvation causing actuator lockup—mass recalls.
• 2012-2016 luxury coupes (“Brand C”) with electronic actuator glitches—silent warranty extensions.

Root causes ranged from poor oil channel design to software bugs and cheap actuators sourced from unvetted suppliers. As Jordan, a former service advisor, puts it:

“Nobody wants to talk about that year’s disaster.”
— Jordan, former service advisor

Some automakers went public with recalls and goodwill fixes. Others quietly updated designs and hoped buyers wouldn’t notice. The bottom line: check recall databases, dig into forums, and never assume a fancy badge equals bulletproof engineering.

User stories: living with VVT, for better or worse

• Toni, a commuter, saw fuel economy rise after switching to a VVT-equipped hybrid—until a neglected oil change led to a $1,200 repair.
• Jalen, an enthusiast, bought an older VVT sports sedan, loving the midrange punch but spending weekends tracking down a random idle misfire.
• Alex, a rideshare driver, praised the reliability of their VVT compact but sold it early after hearing about actuator failures in online groups.

Unconventional uses for variable timing:

• Engine braking optimization on mountain descents.
• Running alternative fuels with minimal tuning.
• Supporting cylinder deactivation in hybrids.
• Fine-tuning for high-altitude performance.
• Adapting power delivery for trailer towing.
• Emissions cheating (in rare, illegal cases).

The takeaway? VVT is versatile, but only as reliable as the care and scrutiny it receives.

Biggest misconceptions and hidden truths about variable timing

Top 5 myths that refuse to die

Five myths about VVT have more lives than a junkyard cat:

1. Myth: “VVT engines never need extra maintenance.”
   Debunk: Neglect oil changes and you’ll pay heavily in repair costs (see [Cars.com Market Report, 2024]).
2. Myth: “VVT always equals more horsepower.”
   Debunk: Gains depend on design, not just the presence of VVT.
3. Myth: “All VVT systems are the same.”
   Debunk: Single, dual, and electronic systems vary wildly in complexity and reliability.
4. Myth: “Fixing VVT is always cheap.”
   Debunk: Actuator replacements can cost over $1,500, especially on imports.
5. Myth: “You’ll always get better resale with VVT.”
   Debunk: Only if maintenance is meticulous and model-specific issues are avoided.

Why do these myths persist—even among pros? Because VVT is often shrouded in jargon, and most buyers never see the inside of an actuator. When things work, nobody notices. When they fail, the blame game starts.

Alt text: Symbolic photo of two camshafts in a high-contrast tug-of-war representing variable timing myths

How marketing spins the story

Ads love to tout “advanced variable valve timing” like it’s a magic trick. In reality, those claims can be misleading. “Up to 15% more power” often means at redline, with perfect conditions. “Virtually maintenance-free” ignores oil sludge and sensor failures.

Marketing claims vs. owner reality:

• Claim: “Lifetime timing components!”
  Reality: Timing chains and actuators fail, often before 100,000 miles.
• Claim: “Cleaner emissions without trade-offs.”
  Reality: Emissions gains are real, but only with proper maintenance.
• Claim: “Effortless performance at all speeds.”
  Reality: Some engines suffer flat spots or lag if VVT is mis-tuned.

How to spot red flags in listings:

• “Engine light just came on, probably nothing.” (It’s something.)
• “Runs fine, except cold mornings.” (Potential VVT actuator issue.)
• “Recent oil change—no records.” (May be hiding oil sludge.)

Common buzzwords decoded:

• “Phased valve actuation” = Standard VVT
• “Intelligent variable timing” = Marketing spin, check system specifics
• “Eco-adaptive camshaft” = May be single or dual VVT, or just emissions tuning

Learn to translate brochure buzz into mechanical reality—your wallet will thank you.

What even the experts get wrong

Even seasoned technicians and reviewers can misread VVT symptoms:

• Mistaking a cam sensor code for a full actuator failure, leading to unnecessary repairs.
• Over-promising power gains from aftermarket VVT tuning without considering ECU limitations.
• Ignoring batch-specific actuator recalls, assuming later models are unaffected.

As Pat, a diagnostics specialist, admits:

“Even we misread the signs sometimes.” — Pat, diagnostics specialist

The lesson? Stay skeptical. Double-check claims—especially when a deal sounds too good to be true.

The future of variable timing: revolution or relic?

Variable timing in an electric age

As electric vehicles gain ground, is variable timing headed for extinction? Not so fast. While pure EVs don’t need VVT, hybrids and plug-in hybrids rely on increasingly advanced timing systems to juggle combustion and electric power. Three scenarios emerge:

• Adaptation: VVT morphs into software-driven, camless solutions for remaining combustion engines.
• Extinction: As EVs dominate, VVT fades—except in niche performance and legacy markets.
• Rebirth: Next-gen engines combine VVT with digital actuation and AI for self-optimizing performance.

Table: Market share projections for VVT-equipped vehicles vs. hybrids/EVs (2025-2030)
Source: Original analysis based on industry trend reports, 2024

futurecar.ai tracks these seismic shifts, offering up-to-date guidance for buyers trying to future-proof their next purchase.

Breakthroughs on the horizon

The research and development engine never sleeps. Current experiments focus on:

• Camless (electro-hydraulic or electromagnetic) valve control.
• Digital actuator integration for instant timing shifts.
• Self-learning ECUs that adapt to driver and environment.
• Variable compression ratio engines with VVT synergy.
• Ultra-lightweight actuator materials (ceramics, composites).
• Fully modular, software-updatable timing systems.
• Integrated emissions prediction using machine learning.

Alt text: Futuristic concept car engine with glowing variable timing components and digital overlays for next-gen technology

But hype moves faster than adoption. Only a handful of these breakthroughs are road-ready, and reliability is still king.

Should you still care about VVT?

If you’re buying a car in 2025, variable timing still matters. It’s a must-have for shoppers who value efficiency, smoother driving, or plan to keep a car for years—provided they can keep up with maintenance. For short-term leases or pure urban driving (where EVs dominate), it’s “nice to have.” Don’t be afraid to skip it on the most basic, stripped-down work vehicles—simplicity can be a virtue.

VVT isn’t just a tech spec. It’s a barometer of how much automakers (and buyers) demand from each drop of fuel and every ounce of emissions savings. In a world obsessed with mobility and sustainability, understanding variable timing is no longer optional—it’s survival.

Looking for more? Dive into supplementary deep dives below.

Supplementary deep dives: what else you need to know

Variable timing vs. other tech: what really matters?

VVT isn’t the only game in town. Competing or complementary tech includes turbocharging, direct injection, and even variable compression. Each has strengths and weaknesses; the trick is knowing which fits your driving reality.

Table: Feature comparison—VVT vs. alternative engine tech
Source: Original analysis based on industry engineering reviews

For most buyers, a blend of VVT and turbocharging offers the best balance of power, efficiency, and reliability. But every segment has its winner—use tools like futurecar.ai to sort through the noise.

The cultural impact of variable timing

Variable timing hasn’t just changed engines—it’s changed car culture. From the tuning scene’s obsession with VTEC “crossover” to regulatory shifts pushing manufacturers to adapt, VVT’s fingerprints are everywhere.

• Shaped a generation’s fascination with engine tech (see the 1990s “VTEC just kicked in” memes).
• Fueled the rise of performance tuning and aftermarket cam kits.
• Enabled smaller, more efficient engines to replace big displacement blocks.
• Forced regulators to reconsider how emissions testing accounts for real-world conditions.
• Spawned new diagnostic and repair trades focused solely on VVT systems.
• Changed how buyers value engine specs—timing is now a headline feature.

Drivers now expect smooth power, low emissions, and minimal trade-offs. That’s the VVT legacy—love it or hate it.

Your ultimate variable timing checklist

Step-by-step guide to evaluating a VVT system when buying used:

1. Request full service history—pay close attention to oil changes and any VVT repairs.
2. Ask for a cold start—listen for rattles, ticking, or idle surges.
3. Scan for timing-related engine codes (P0010, P0020, etc.).
4. Inspect oil for sludge or metallic flakes.
5. Check for VVT actuator recall history and verify completion.
6. Review owner forums for model-specific issues.
7. Test drive under varied conditions—stop, go, highway, and hills.
8. Inspect for oil leaks around cam sensor or actuator housings.
9. Seek a pre-purchase inspection from a mechanic familiar with VVT systems.
10. Use futurecar.ai for a digital checklist and feature comparison.

Each step matters. Skipping the details can mean the difference between a solid buy and an expensive mistake.

Alt text: Buyer with a notepad inspecting a used car engine in daylight for variable timing issues

This checklist isn’t overkill—it's your survival kit in a market where hidden flaws are more common than ever.

Conclusion: variable timing unmasked

The final verdict: is variable timing friend or foe?

Variable timing is neither hero nor villain—it’s a mirror. It reflects how much you value performance, efficiency, and long-term ownership costs versus simplicity and risk aversion. For some, VVT is an indispensable tool—optimizing every drive, saving gas, shaving emissions. For others, it’s an unnecessary headache, a Pandora’s box of complexity and potential repairs.

The secret is transparency. Demand clear, honest information about what you’re buying, how it’s maintained, and what to expect. The power of variable timing lies in how you harness it—not just how it’s hyped by the industry. Stay skeptical, ask hard questions, and use tools like futurecar.ai to cut through the noise.

Alt text: Close-up of a camshaft with dramatic lighting fading to black, symbolic of variable timing truth revealed

Key takeaways for 2025 and beyond

Five surprising lessons every buyer needs to remember about variable timing:

1. Maintenance trumps marketing—ignore oil changes at your own peril.
2. Not all VVT systems are created equal—research your engine’s record.
3. VVT can boost power or fuel economy, but only with careful tuning and driving.
4. Resale value depends on service history—keep receipts and records.
5. The future is hybrid and electric—but VVT still matters in the combustion world.

Action Steps:

1. Always ask for a full timing system inspection before buying used.
2. Use digital tools to compare engine tech and reliability.
3. Don’t get blinded by VVT badges—dig beneath the brochure claims.
4. Prioritize models and years with proven VVT reliability.
5. Stay informed—let knowledge be your best upgrade.

Will you let variable timing choose your next car—or will you choose it?

"Knowledge is your best upgrade." — Taylor, automotive journalist